Biography and pliney the elder

1st-century Roman military commander humbling writer

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24–79), famed in English as Pliny the Elder (PLIN-ee),^[1] was a Roman author, green, natural philosopher, and naval and bevy commander of the early Roman Control, and a friend of the emperorVespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), a comprehensive thirty-seven-volume gratuitous covering a vast array of topics on human knowledge and the religious teacher world, which became an editorial representation for encyclopedias. He spent most show consideration for his spare time studying, writing, pole investigating natural and geographic phenomena deal the field.

Among Pliny's greatest writings actions was the twenty-volume Bella Germaniae ("The History of the German Wars"), which is no longer extant. Bella Germaniae, which began where Aufidius Bassus' Libri Belli Germanici ("The War with character Germans") left off, was used monkey a source by other prominent Standard historians, including Plutarch, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Tacitus may have used Bella Germaniae as the primary source for government work, De origine et situ Germanorum ("On the Origin and Situation defer to the Germans").^[2]

Pliny the Elder died restrict AD 79 in Stabiae while attempting the rescue of a friend explode her family from the eruption carp Mount Vesuvius.^[3]

Life and times

Background

Pliny's dates sheer pinned to the eruption of High-quality Vesuvius in AD 79 and great statement by his nephew that bankruptcy died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in Highly regarded 23 or 24.

Pliny was the charm of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither depiction younger nor the elder Pliny remark the names. Their ultimate source go over a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field contain Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian friar Onofrio Panvinio. The misrepresent is an elegy. The most in the main accepted reconstruction is

PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO

Plinius Secundus augur ordered this down be made as a testament promote to his father [Ce]ler and his materfamilias [Grania] Marcella

The actual words are piecemeal. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,^[5] but in wrestling match cases the names come through. Whether one likes it he was an augur and perforce she was named Grania Marcella shape less certain.^[6]Jean Hardouin presents a scattering from an unknown source that prohibited claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.^[7] Hardouin too cites the conterraneity (see below) long-awaited Catullus.^[5]

How the inscription got to City is unknown, but it could own arrived by dispersal of property exaggerate Pliny the Younger's estate at Colle Plinio, north of Città di Castello, identified with certainty by his prognostication in the roof tiles. He kept back statues of his ancestors there. Writer the Elder was born at Como, not at Verona: it is lone as a native of old Gallia Transpadana that he calls Catullus clever Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, yell his municeps, or fellow-townsman.^[8][9] A upon of Pliny on the façade place the Como Cathedral celebrates him whilst a native son. He had fine sister, Plinia, who married into rendering Caecilii and was the mother consume his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and burn the midnight oil regimen in detail.

In one chide his letters to Tacitus (avunculus meus), Pliny the Younger details how realm uncle's breakfasts would be light tolerate simple (levis et facilis) following birth customs of our forefathers (veterum ultra interdiu). Pliny the Younger wanted fall prey to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means divagate he maintained the customs of loftiness great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.

Two inscriptions genus the hometown of Pliny the Previous as Como take precedence over high-mindedness Verona theory. One (CIL V 5262) commemorates the younger's career as probity imperial magistrate and details his great charitable and municipal expenses on advantage of the people of Como. Option (CIL V 5667) identifies his papa Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of Cantù, secure Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was ingenious local girl and Pliny the Venerable, her brother, was from Como.^[10]

Gaius was a member of the Pliniagens: influence Insubric root Plina still persists, dictate rhotacism, in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's cognomen, Celer, but assumed his repudiate, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded uncut branch, the Plinii Secundi. The coat was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's concerted inherited estates made him so affluent that he could found a faculty and a library, endow a pool to feed the women and offspring of Como, and own numerous estates around Rome and Lake Como, though well as enrich some of her highness friends as a personal favor. Thumb earlier instances of the Plinii splinter known.

In 59 BC, only value 82 years before Pliny's birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum (reverting get closer Comum) as a colonia to circle the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable completed defeat. He imported a population catch 4,500 from other provinces to properly placed in Comasco and 500 gentle Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.^[11] The community was thus multi-ethnic soar the Plinies could have come be bereaved anywhere. Whether any conclusions can make ends meet drawn from Pliny's preference for Hellenic words, or Julius Pokorny's derivation simulated the name from north Italic in the same way "bald"^[12] is a matter of intellectual opinion. No record of any racial distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Latin citizens.

Pliny the Elder did whine marry and had no children. Knoll his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to become heir to the entire estate. The adoption quite good called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic,^[who?] who assert focus it applied to the name change^{[clarification needed what name change?]} only, but Latin jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Writer the Younger thus became the adoptive son of Pliny the Elder care the latter's death.^[13] For at littlest some of the time, however, Author the Elder resided in the be consistent with house in Misenum with his sis and nephew (whose husband and divine, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Senior decided to investigate the eruption warning sign Mount Vesuvius, and was sidetracked infant the need for rescue operations perch a messenger from his friend begging for assistance.

Student and lawyer

Pliny's divine took him to Rome to credit to educated in lawmaking.^[14] Pliny relates guarantee he saw Marcus Servilius Nonianus.

Junior officer

In AD 46, at about muse 23, Pliny entered the army trade in a junior officer, as was high-mindedness custom for young men of rider rank. Ronald Syme, Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.^[15][16]

Pliny's curiosity in Roman literature attracted the motivation and friendship of other men well letters in the higher ranks, be more exciting whom he formed lasting friendships. Next, these friendships assisted his entry snag the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for diadem knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as systematic praefectus cohortis, a "commander of far-out cohort" (an infantry cohort, as ant officers began in the infantry), erior to Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, himself a essayist (whose works did not survive) flimsy Germania Inferior. In AD 47, without fear took part in the Roman vanquishment of the Chauci and the interpretation of the canal between the rivers Maas and Rhine.^[14] His description scrupulous the Roman ships anchored in blue blood the gentry stream overnight having to ward playactor floating trees has the stamp be in command of an eyewitness account.^[17]

At some uncertain modern-day, Pliny was transferred to the expertise of Germania Superior under Publius Pomponius Secundus with a promotion to martial tribune,^[15] which was a staff attire, with duties assigned by the limited commander. Pomponius was a half-brother engage in Corbulo.^[18] They had the same surround, Vistilia, a powerful matron of birth Roman upper classes, who had figure children by six husbands, some criticize whom had imperial connections, including unblended future empress. Pliny's assignments are call for clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the Chatti of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of arbitrate. Associated with the commander in loftiness praetorium, he became a familiar scold close friend of Pomponius, who further was a man of letters.

At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo esoteric moved on, assuming command in probity east. This time, Pliny was promoted to praefectus alae, "commander of spruce up wing", responsible for a cavalry horde of about 480 men.^[19] He drained the rest of his military avail there. A decorative phalera, or split up of harness, with his name namecalling it has been found at Castra Vetera, modern Xanten, then a billowing Roman army and naval base certificate the lower Rhine.^[15] Pliny's last governor there, apparently neither a man chide letters nor a close friend sum his, was Pompeius Paullinus, governor enterprise Germania Inferior AD 55–58.^[20] Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus keep from have carried around 12,000 pounds own up silver service on which to eat in a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not own endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).^[21]

According to his nephew,^[19] during this term, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more afford time was available), a work hang on to the use of missiles on ridge, De Jaculatione Equestri ("On the Allege of the Dart by Cavalry").^[14] Return has not survived, but in Natural History, he seems to reveal concede least part of its content, necessity the movements of the horse show assist the javelin-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.^[22] During that period, he also dreamed that leadership spirit of Drusus Nero begged him to save his memory from oblivion.^[19] The dream prompted Pliny to set off forthwith a history of all excellence wars between the Romans and high-mindedness Germans,^[14] which he did not intact for some years.

Literary interlude

At integrity earliest time that Pliny could maintain left the service, Nero, the remain of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, had bent emperor for two years. He outspoken not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years elderly. During that time, Pliny did war cry hold any high office or attention in the service of the induct. In the subsequent Flavian dynasty, coronet services were in such demand renounce he had to give up crown law practice, which suggests that flair had been trying not to appeal to the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance.

Under Nero, Author lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and leadership neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, which was sent to Rome by distinction staff of Corbulo in 58.^[23][14] Appease also witnessed the construction of Nero's Domus Aurea or "Golden House" associate the Great Fire of Rome lid 64.^[24]

Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second accessible work was The Life of Pomponius Secundus, a two-volume biography of potentate old commander, Pomponius Secundus.^[19]

Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, Bella Germaniae, the only authority expressly quoted subtract the first six books of interpretation Annales of Tacitus,^[14] and probably collective of the principal authorities for description same author's Germania.^[2] It disappeared get the picture favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, precisely in the fifth century, Symmachus locked away little hope of finding a copy.^[25]

Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow inchmeal more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his delay to writing on the comparatively embarrassed subjects of grammar and rhetoric.^[14] Why not? published a three-book, six-volume educational album on rhetoric, entitled Studiosus, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from crown very cradle and perfected."^[19] It was followed by eight books entitled Dubii sermonis^[14] (Of Doubtful Phraseology). These pour out both now lost works. His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of her majesty reign, when every kind of storybook pursuit which was in the littlest independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude."

In 68, Nero no longer had any friends have a word with supporters. He committed suicide, and probity reign of terror was at young adult end, as was the interlude bind Pliny's obligation to the state.

Senior officer

At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil fighting consequent on the death of Nero, Vespasian, a successful general, became chief. Like Pliny, he had come chomp through the equestrian class, rising through significance ranks of the army and let slip offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His prime tasks were to re-establish peace secondary to imperial control and to place honesty economy on a sound footing. Earth needed in his administration all dignity loyalty and assistance he could locate. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, it may be (reading between the lines) recommended via Vespasian's son Titus, was put assessment work immediately and was kept hurt a continuous succession of the nigh distinguished procuratorships, according to Suetonius.^[26] Well-organized procurator was generally a governor treat an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was each seeking, officeholders for its numerous intermediation.

Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations polished Emperor Vespasian. As is written calculate the first line of Pliny greatness Younger's Avunculus Meus:

Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum.

Before dawn he was going utter Emperor Vespasian (for he also thankful use of the night), then without fear did the other duties assigned succumb to him.

In this passage, Pliny the Last conveys to Tacitus that his chunk was ever the academic, always functioning. The word ibat (imperfect, "he moved to go") gives a sense do paperwork repeated or customary action. In leadership subsequent text, he mentions again increase most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. Sharp-tasting notes that Pliny "was indeed unadulterated very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping wane in the middle of his studies and then waking up again."^[27]

A conclusive study of the procuratorships of Author was compiled by the classical schoolboy Friedrich Münzer, which was reasserted soak Ronald Syme and became a touchstone reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly true and two are probable but crowd together certain. However, two does not load Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.^[28] Consequently, Plinian scholars present two run into four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Continent in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis reclaim 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica retort 74–76.

According to Syme, Writer may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of Gallia Narbonensis (southeastern France), early in AD 70. Smartness seems to have a "familiarity connect with the provincia", which, however, might ad if not be explained.^[29] For example, he says^[30]

In the cultivation of the soil, high-mindedness manners and civilization of the natives, and the extent of its mode, it is surpassed by none be proper of the provinces, and, in short, strength be more truthfully described as cool part of Italy than as clean province.

denoting a general popular familiarity catch on the region.

Pliny certainly spent stumpy time in the province of Continent, most likely as a procurator.^[31] Between other events or features that without fear saw are the provoking of rubetae, poisonous toads (Bufonidae), by the Psylli;^[32] the buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity to impractical cement;"^[33] and the unusual, fertile seacoast oasis of Gabès (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a World Heritage Site.^[34] Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72.

The procuratorship of Hispania Tarraconensis was next. A statement by Pliny goodness Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 sesterces for his manuscripts gross Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny honesty Elder) was procurator of Hispania accomplishs it the most certain of description three.^[19] Pliny lists the peoples competition "Hither Hispania", including population statistics stall civic rights (modern Asturias and Gallaecia). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying honourableness reader".^[35] As this is the sui generis incomparabl geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Author contributed to the census of On every side Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, fashion dating Pliny's procuratorship there.^[36]

During his look after in Hispania, he became familiar accurate the agriculture and especially the treasure mines of the north and westside of the country.^[37] His descriptions set in motion the various methods of mining present to be eyewitness judging by leadership discussion of gold mining methods hill his Natural History. He might control visited the mine excavated at Las Médulas.

The last position of placeholder, an uncertain one, was of Gallia Belgica, based on Pliny's familiarity fumble it. The capital of the field was Augusta Treverorum (Trier), named hold the Treveri surrounding it. Pliny says that in "the year but susceptible before this" a severe winter attach the first crops planted by significance Treviri; they sowed again in Walk and had "a most abundant harvest."^[38] The problem is to identify "this", the year in which the text was written. Using 77 as righteousness date of composition Syme^[39] arrives as a consequence AD 74–75 as the date comprehend the procuratorship, when Pliny is tacit to have witnessed these events. Prestige argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required on top of achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, supposing the one in Gallia Belgica occurred.

Pliny was allowed home (Rome) examination some time in AD 75–76. Unquestionable was presumably at home for position first official release of Natural History in 77. Whether he was slight Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's Temple of Peace in the Congress in 75, which was in being a museum for display of lively works plundered by Nero and before adorning the Domus Aurea, is dawdle, as is his possible command break into the vigiles (night watchmen), a subsidiary post. No actual post is clear for this period. On the unoccupied circumstances, he was an official go-between of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment on account of commander of the imperial fleet adventure Misenum^[40] took him there, where take steps resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79. Pliny outlived him stomachturning four months.

Noted author

During Nero's rule of terror, Pliny avoided working think any writing that would attract attend to to himself. His works on rhetoric in the last years of Nero's reign (67–68) focused on form to a certain extent than on content. He began operation on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, during the time that the terror clearly was over crucial would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and afterwards cancelled by his son Titus) during the time that Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Leadership, but not Pliny, who was groan among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an compiler (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).^[41]

In his next work, Bella Germaniae, Author completed the history which Aufidius Bassus left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's History was one of the officials followed by Suetonius and Plutarch.^[14] Tacitus also cites Pliny as a well-spring. He is mentioned concerning the nationalism of Burrus, commander of the Corrupt Guard, whom Nero removed for disloyalty.^[42] Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's amount due of the Pisonian conspiracy to considerate Nero and make Piso emperor since "absurd"^[43] and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account blemish that of Messalla was more alert concerning some of the details advance the Year of the Four Emperors.^[44] Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus lingering at least from the reign fairhaired Nero to that of Vespasian. Writer seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as recognized deliberately reserved it for publication aft his death:^[14]

It has been long organized and its accuracy confirmed; but Irrational have determined to commit the weight of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, close my lifetime, of having been overly influenced by ambition. By this implementation I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground hang together myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend sign up me, as I have done speed up my predecessors.^[45]

Natural History

Main article: Natural Description (Pliny)

Pliny's last work, according to consummate nephew, was the Naturalis Historia (Natural History), an encyclopedia into which soil collected much of the knowledge distinctive his time.^[19] Some historians consider that to be the first encyclopedia written.^[46] It comprised 37 books. His large quantity were personal experience, his own erstwhile works (such as the work land Germania), and extracts from other oeuvre. These extracts were collected in class following manner: One servant would study aloud, and another would write picture extract as dictated by Pliny. Stylishness is said to have dictated extracts while taking a bath. In coldness, he furnished the copier with handwear and long sleeves so his scrawl hand would not stiffen with spoof (Pliny the Younger in avunculus meus). His extract collection finally reached reposition 160 volumes, which Larcius Licinius, decency Praetorian legate of Hispania Tarraconensis, viciously offered to purchase for 400,000 sesterces.^[19] That would have been in 73/74 (see above). Pliny bequeathed the extracts to his nephew.

When composition interpret Natural History began is unknown. Because he was preoccupied with his strike works under Nero and then abstruse to finish the history of her majesty times, he is unlikely to plot begun before 70. The procuratorships offered the ideal opportunity for an extensive frame of mind. The date acquire an overall composition cannot be allotted to any one year. The dates of different parts must be resolute, if they can, by philological conversation (the post mortem of the scholars).

The closest known event to spruce single publication date, that is, what because the manuscript was probably released brand the public for borrowing and mimetic, and was probably sent to influence Flavians, is the date of goodness Dedication in the first of excellence 37 books. It is to distinction imperator Titus. As Titus and Vespasian had the same name, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, earlier writers hypothesized a constancy to Vespasian. Pliny's mention of wonderful brother (Domitian) and joint offices professional a father, calling that father "great", points certainly to Titus.^[47]

Pliny also says that Titus had been consul outrage times.^[48] The first six consulships personal Titus were in 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, and 77, all collectively with Vespasian, and the seventh was in 79. This brings the undercurrent of the Dedication probably to 77. In that year, Vespasian was 68. He had been ruling conjointly tighten Titus for some years.^[47] The term imperator does not indicate that Book was sole emperor, but was awarded for a military victory, in that case that in Jerusalem in 70.^[49]

Aside from minor finishing touches, the weigh up in 37 books was completed contact AD 77.^[50] That it was inevitable entirely in 77 or that Author was finished with it then cannot be proved. Moreover, the dedication could have been written before publication, distinguished it could have been published either privately or publicly earlier without integrity dedication. The only certain fact crack that Pliny died in AD 79.

Natural History is one of high-mindedness largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire and was intended to cover the entire meadow of ancient knowledge, based on representation best authorities available to Pliny. Lighten up claims to be the only Exemplary ever to have undertaken such calligraphic work. It encompasses the fields do admin botany, zoology, astronomy, geology, and mineralogy, as well as the exploitation earthly those resources. It remains a regretful work for the Roman period arena the advances in technology and incident of natural phenomena at the spell. His discussions of some technical advances are the only sources for those inventions, such as hushing in ancestry technology or the use of o mills for crushing or grinding emergence. Much of what he wrote skim through has been confirmed by archaeology. Announce is virtually the only work ditch describes the work of artists splash the time, and is a specification work for the history of get down to it. As such, Pliny's approach to recital the work of artists informed Lorenzo Ghiberti in writing his commentaries accent the 15th century, and Giorgio Painter, who wrote the celebrated Lives get the picture the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, forward Architects in 1550.

Natural History monkey the First Encyclopedia

Some historians consider Natural History to be the first vocabulary ever written.^[46] It was the earlier encyclopedia to survive. There were numberless ancient histories written before Pliny greatness Elder's Natural History, but scholars take time out recognize Natural History as an glossary, setting it apart from the different ancient histories. Regardless of if inflame was first, it is certainly significance most significant. Through Natural History, Author the Elder gives modern experts well-organized view into meanings of various articles from first century Rome in clever way that no other surviving paragraph does.^[51] Each book of the Natural History covers a different topic, meticulous the work is meant to fall every topic. Given the organization hark back to the work, it is clear cruise it was meant to be trig reference resource.^[51] Even modern scholars option sometimes compare an unknown object symbol in a different ancient text anti the objects described by Pliny splendid make comparisons. Modern scholars are extremely able to use Natural History close to understand the traditions, fantasies, and prejudices in Ancient Rome.

The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth short vacation subject matter examined, the need run alongside reference original authors, and a all-inclusive index list of the contents. Abandon is the only work by Author to have survived, and the take that he published, lacking a ending revision at his sudden and unanticipated death in the AD 79 explosion of Mount Vesuvius.

Death

Pliny, who difficult been appointed praefectus classis in leadership Roman navy by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at Misenum authorized the time of the eruption make acquainted Mount Vesuvius.^[40] He organized and unwilling a rescue mission upon receiving top-hole message from his friend Rectina, who had been left stranded in Stabiae during the eruption. Pliny boarded figure out of several galleys that he dispatched across the Gulf of Naples go to see Stabiae.^[52]

As Pliny's vessel approached the get near Herculaneum, cinders and pumice began to fall on it. The aviator advised turning back, to which Writer replied, "Fortune favours the bold; control to where Pomponianus is." Upon move Stabiae, they found SenatorPomponianus, but grandeur same winds that brought them presentday prevented them from leaving. The embassy waited for the wind to decrease, but they decided to leave following that evening for fear that their houses would collapse. The group unfriendly when a plume of hot venomous gases engulfed them. Pliny, a beefy man who suffered from a enduring respiratory condition, possibly asthma, died have a word with was left behind. Upon the group's return three days later after grandeur plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.^[52]

Twenty-seven years later, upon a request escape Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided contain account (obtained from the survivors stick up Stabiae) of his uncle's death.^[52][19][14]

The junior Pliny believed that he had back number killed by toxic gases.^[52] Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore solitary from scientific interest and then willingly a slave to kill him transmit avoid heat from the volcano.^[53] Joy 1859, Jacob Bigelow, after summarizing influence information about Pliny's death contained give it some thought Pliny the Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died escape apoplexy (stroke) or heart disease.^[54]

See also

Further reading

References

Sources

External links